The document discusses energy, work, and simple machines. It defines energy, kinetic energy, and work, and establishes the relationship between work and kinetic energy in the work-energy theorem. It also explains how simple machines like levers and pulleys can be used to trade off force and distance in order to reduce the amount of effort required for a task.

1. Energy, Work, and Simple Machines Or How I Learned To Build Things

2. ENERGY AND WORK If you had a job moving boxes around a warehouse, you would know something about work and energy. You have probably thought on more than one occasion that physics is hard work and that you expend a lot of energy solving problems. Your meaning of the words work and energy is different from their meaning in physics.

3. ENERGY When describing an object, you might say that it is blue, it is 2 m tall, and it can produce a change. This property, the ability to produce change in itself or the environment, is called energy . The energy of an object can take many forms, including thermal energy, chemical energy, and energy of motion.

4. ENERGY The energy of an object resulting from motion is called kinetic energy . To describe kinetic energy mathematically, you need to use motion expressions and Newton’s second law of motion, F= ma.

5. ENERGY AND MOTION Start with an object of mass m , moving at speed v o . Now apply a force F , to the object to accelerate it to a new speed, v 1 . The equation to describe this is: v 1 2 = v o 2 + 2ad To see how energy is expressed in this relationship, you need to do some rearranging. First add a negative v o 2 to both sides. v 1 2 - v o 2 = 2ad

6. ENERGY OF MOTION Using Newton’s second law of motion, substitute F/m for a . v 1 2 - v o 2 = 2Fd/m And finally, multiply both sides of the equation by 1/2 m. 1/2mv 1 2 - 1/2mv o 2 = Fd

7. ENERGY OF MOTION On the left-hand side are the terms that describe the energy of the system. This energy results from motion and is represented by the symbol KE , for kinetic. KE = 1/2m v 2 Because mass and velocity are both properties of the system, kinetic energy describes a property of the system. In contrast, the right-hand side of the equation refers to the environment: a force exerted and the resulting displacement.

8. ENERGY OF MOTION Thus, some agent in the environment changed a property of the system. The process of changing the energy of the system is called work , and it is represented by the symbol W . W = Fd

9. ENERGY OF MOTION Substituting K and W into the equation, you obtain KE 1 - KE o = W. The left-hand side is simply the difference or change in kinetic energy and can be expressed by using a delta.  KE = W In other words, this equation says that when work is done on an object, a change in kinetic energy results.

10. ENERGY OF MOTION This hypothesis,  KE = W, has been tested and proven correct. It is called the work-energy theorem . A unit of energy is called a joule , in honor of James Prescott Joule. If a 2-kg object moves at 1 m/s, it has a kinetic energy of 1 J.

11. While the change in kinetic energy described the change in a property of an object, the term Fd , describes something done to the object. An agent in the environment exerted a force F that displaced the object an amount d . The work done on an object by external forces changes the amount of energy the object has.

12. Energy Transfer Looking at the equations we have just learned, notice that the direction of energy transfer can go both ways. If the environment does work on the system, then W is positive and the energy of the system increases. If, however, the system does work on the environment, then W is negative, and the energy of the system decreases . Work transfers energy between an environment and a system. Energy transfers can go either direction. Energy Transfer Work System Environment

13. Calculating Work The equation for work is W = Fd , however this equation holds only for constant forces exerted in the direction of the motion. What happens if the force is exerted perpendicular to the direction of motion ? An everyday example is the motion of a planet around the sun. If the orbit is circular, then the force is always perpendicular to the direction of motion. Consequently, the speed of the planet doesn't change. Therefore, its kinetic energy is also constant. Using the equation ΔKE = W, you see for constant KE that ΔKE = 0 and thus W = 0. This means that if F and d are at right angles, then W = 0.

14. CONSTANT FORCE AT AN ANGLE You’ve learned that a force exerted in the direction of motion does an amount of work given by W = Fd . A force perpendicular to the motion does no work. What work does a force exerted at an angle do? You push on the handle of a lawnmower at a 25-degree angle, with a force of 125 N. You know that a force can be replaced by its components.

15. CONSTANT FORCE AT AN ANGLE The 125-N force, F , exerted in the direction of the handle has two components. The magnitude of the horizontal component, F x , is related to the magnitude of the force, F , by a cosine function: cos 25° = F x /F. By solving for F x , you obtain F x = F cos 25° = 113 N.

16. CONSTANT FORCE AT AN ANGLE Using the same method, the vertical component is F y = -F sin 25.0° = -52.8 N, where the negative sign shows that the force is down . Because the displacement is in the x direction, only the x -component does work. The y -component does no work. The work you do when you exert a force at an angle to the motion is equal to the component of the force in the direction of the displacement times the distance moved.

18. CONSTANT FORCE AT AN ANGLE The magnitude of the component force acting in the direction of displacement is found by multiplying the magnitude of force F by the cosine of the angle between F and the direction of the displacement, F x = F cos θ. Thus the work done is represented the following way. W = F cos θ d = Fd cos θ

20. CONSTANT FORCE AT AN ANGLE Other agents exert forces on the lawn mower. Which of these agents do work. Earth’s gravity acts downward, friction exerts a horizontal force opposite the motion, and are perpendicular (or in friction's case, 180º) to the motion so do no work. The work done by friction is negative. Negative work done by a force reduces the energy of the system. Stop pushing on the mower, and it quickly stops moving; its energy would be reduced. Positive work done by a force increases the energy; negative work reduces it.

21. POWER Until now, none of the discussions of work has mentioned the time it takes to move an object. The work done by a person lifting a box of books is the same whether the box is lifted onto a shelf in 2 seconds or 20 minutes. Although the work done is the same, the power is different. Power is the rate of doing work. That is, power is the rate at which energy is transferred.

23. POWER To calculate power, use the following formula Power is measured in watts (W). One watt is one joule of energy transferred in one second. Because a watt is such a small unit, power is often measured in kilowatts (kW). A kilowatt is 1000 watts.

24. Machines Everyone uses some machines ever day. Some are simple tools, such as bottle openers and screwdrivers; others are complex, such as bicycles and automobiles. Machines, whether powered by engines or people, make tasks easier. A machine eases the load by changing either the magnitude or the direction of a force as it transmits energy to the task.

25. Consider the bottle opener. When you use the opener, you lift the handle, thereby doing work on the opener. The opener lifts the cap, doing work on it. The work you do is called the input work , W i . The work the machine does is called the output work , W o . Work, as you recall, is the transfer of energy by mechanical means. You put work into a machine, in this case, the bottle opener. That is, you transfer energy to the opener. The opener, in turn, does work on the cap, transferring energy to it .

26. The opener is not a source of energy, so the cap cannot receive more energy than you put into the opener. Thus, the output work can never be greater than the input work . The machine simply aids in the transfer of energy from you to bottle cap.

27. Mechanical Advantage The force you exert on a machine is called the effort force , F e . The force exerted by the machine is called the resistance force , F r . The ratio of resistance force to effort force, F r /F e , is called the mechanical advantage (MA) of the machine. MA = F r F e

28. F r F e

29. Many machines, such as the bottle opener, have a mechanical advantage greater than one. When the mechanical advantage is greater than one, the machine increases the force you apply . You can write the mechanical advantage of a machine in another way using the definition of work. The input work is product of the effort force you exert, F e , and the distance your hand moved, d e . A machine can increase force, but it can not increase energy . An ideal machine transfers all the energy, so the output work equals the input work . W o =W i or F r d r =F e d e

30. This equation can be rewritten F r /F e =d e /d r . We know that the mechanical advantage is given by MA = F r /F e . For an ideal machine, the mechanical advantage is called the ideal mechanical advantage, IMA. Note that you measure distances moved to calculate the ideal mechanical advantage, IMA , but you measure the forces exerted to find the actual mechanical advantage, MA . IMA = d e d r

31. Efficiency In a real machine, not all of the input work is available as output work. Some of the energy transferred by the work may be "lost" to thermal energy. Any energy removed from the system means less output work from the machine. Consequently, the machine is less efficient at accomplishing the task. The efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of output work to input work. efficiency = W o W i x 100%

32. An ideal machine has equal output and input work, W o /W i =1, and its efficiency is 100 %. All real machines have efficiencies less than 100%. Lower efficiency means that a greater effort force is needed to exert the same resistance force as a comparable machine of higher efficiency. efficiency = F r /F e d e /d r x 100% efficiency = MA IMA x 100%

33. Simple Machines Most machines, no matter how complex, are combinations of one or more of the six simple machines. They are the lever, pulley, wheel and axle, inclined plane, wedge, and screw.

35. The lever is the only simple machines that has more than one variation. p. 235

36. Gears, one of the simple machines used in a bicycle, are really a form of the wheel and axle. The IMA of all machines is the ratio of distances moved. For levers and wheel and axles this ratio can be replaced by the distance between the place where the force is applied and the pivot point . A common version of the wheel and axle is a pair of gears on a rotating shaft. The IMA is the ratio of the radii of the two gears. Figure 10-10.

37. Compound Machine A compound machine consists of two or more simple machines linked so that the resistance force of one machine becomes the effort force of the second. The mechanical advantage of a compound machine is the product of the mechanical advantages of the simple machines it is made up of. MA = MA machine 1 x MA machine 2